A new book called Chinese Treasures in Istanbul has been published by the Foreign Ministry of the Republic of Turkey.
In Turkish, English and Chinese, the beautifully illustrated book focuses on highly refined Chinese ceramics cherished in the Topkapi Palace of Istanbul.
In 1453, Mehmed II (1432-81) ordered the construction of the Topkapi Palace, which, in the following 380 years, remained the residence of Ottoman sultans and the center of the empire.
In 1924, the second year after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the Topkapi Palace became a museum, hosting one of the world's most abundant imperial treasures.
Over 10,000 Chinese ceramics are present in the Topkapi Museum forming one of the world's largest treasure houses. Numerous researchers have devoted their time to these precious goods.
Almost all of the Chinese ceramics in the Topkapi Palace were made during the Yuan (1271-1368), Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties at the southern kilns of Longquan and Jingdezhen. They represent some of the finest examples of ancient Chinese ceramics produced for export.
Situated in southwestern Zhejiang Province, Longquan is just 150 kilometers (93.21 miles) away from the sea. Water conservation projects starting in the early 11th century curbed the floods and enabled local products to reach the coast and other parts of the country much more easily.
During the Yuan Dynasty, ceramics production at Longquan reached its prime. Archaeologists have discovered some 360 kilns in Longquan County. The quality and quantity of the ceramics found there stand out among other ancient kilns in China.
Known as longyao (dragon kiln), some of the largest kilns in Longquan measure 80 meters (87.49 yards) in length. It is estimated between 40,000 and 50,000 pieces of ceramics could be made at the same time in one such kiln.
As China's "porcelain capital," Jingdezhen, of today's Jiangxi Province, also commands geological advantages such as ample clay and firewood, as well as convenient transportation.
Ceramics production started here in the 10th century and continues to grow. The body of the ceramics here is pure white, forming a superb background for colorful decoration.
Long before the Yuan Dynasty, the lower reaches of the Yangtze River had become the nation's center of agriculture and commerce. In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the tax on overseas trade grew into a chief source of income for the government.
As the ancient Silk Road -- from Northwest China across Central Asia into the Middle East and Europe -- was blocked by war during this period, the Southern Song (1127-1279) government had to rely on marine routes for trade.
Guangzhou, Quanzhou and other port cities in southern China undertook growing volumes of exports, which went through Southeast Asia to South Asia before reaching the Middle East and East Africa.
On this basis, the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty improved the trade system, designating special officials to supervise important kilns across the country. These kilns produced large quantities of ceramics aimed at the overseas market.
As the Yuan government allowed the merchants to net 30 percent of the trade profit, it greatly encouraged the ceramics trade which began to thrive. In the major Chinese ports, it was common to see merchants from the Middle East conducting business with local counterparts in the Persian language.
For most part of the Ming Dynasty, the government prohibited private trade. Nevertheless, Chinese ceramics were sent abroad as official gifts to overseas rulers.
The royal court loosened control on the overseas ceramics trade at the end of the Ming Dynasty. Europe became the main market for Chinese goods, represented by qinghua (blue and white) porcelain.
The three early emperors -- Kangxi (1662-1722 in reign), Yongzheng (1723-35 in reign) and Qianlong (1736-95 in reign) -- of the Qing Dynasty loved delicate ceramics, and encouraged the development of imperial kilns. New production and decoration skills mushroomed in this period, which naturally benefited the overseas market.
Over one-tenth of the Chinese ceramics treasured in the Topkapi Palace belong to the celadon (blue ware) category, which mostly came from the Longquan kiln during the 14th and 15th centuries.
Blue ware production has a long history in southern China. As early as the third century, today's Zhejiang Province had made blue wares, which gradually replaced bronze ware, lacquer ware and jade as sacrificial items for people who had died.
Produced in temperatures of 1,280 0C, the blue ware's body turns from light gray into brick red after firing, with the blue-green glaze being semi-transparent.
The popularity of the blue ware in the Middle East partly comes from the belief that, once in contact with lethal food, the blue porcelain would either break or let out vapor, although this hasn't been proved.
Most blue products in the Topkapi Palace are large containers, difficult to produce in the huge kilns. In the Chinese domestic market, people preferred small wares at the dinner table, whereas in the Islamic world, people usually dined with one large bowl or dish. In producing these large containers, the even color of the glaze was not so important as the precision of the container.
Qinghua porcelain is perhaps the most well known china in the world.
Aimed at the Islamic market, many decorative patterns on the qinghua wares adopted Islamic styles, sometimes with Arabic characters written directly on the goods.
During the rule of Ming Emperor Chengzu, whose reign (1403-24) title was Yongle, genius creations bloomed among Chinese potters. The blue and white decorations on huge porcelain were unprecedented and hard to imitate, even for craftsmen of later times.
Birds and flowers, mountains and rivers -- themes in traditional Chinese painting -- were vividly depicted on the qinghua wares. For overseas customers, these wares were more Oriental and popular than those specially designed for the overseas market.
In the late Ming Dynasty, while the imperial court enjoyed qinghua wares made from official kilns, a large quantity of such ceramics flowed into the European market from the private kilns, which were less rigid in design and decoration.
In the Qing Dynasty, enamel and colored glaze were added with gold, crystal, jade and ruby to make them more elaborate and extravagant.
Chinese porcelain remained symbols of power and fortune for the Ottoman noble class.
On important occasions such as the Sultan's marriage, birthday or at a reception of foreign envoys, Chinese porcelain was indispensable for these ceremonies. When the Sultan fell ill, his prime minister and other high officials would present him with Chinese ceramics as a token of goodwill.
Some of the best Chinese ceramics in the Topkapi Palace were carefully noted for their origin, usage and storage place.
The dexterous craftsmen in the Middle East inlaid precious stones on Chinese porcelain, either to mend the cracks or to change the function of the wares. All the broken Chinese wares were recorded and carefully mended.
Many Chinese-style containers were given different roles in the Middle East. The bottle with a handle, for instance, was a common wine container for the Chinese; but for Islamic people it held water so they could wash their hands at the dinner table.
Chinese ceramics inspired Turkish artists to make porcelain bricks covering the exterior and interior of mausoleums, tombs and other architecture.
In areas like textile, gold and silver ware, as well as inlaid woodenware, Chinese-style patterns are common. In some rare decorations, peony, chrysanthemum, lotus and other typical Chinese flowers are put together perfectly with tulip and other plants found in Turkey.
Although China and the Ottoman Empire seemed far away from each other in ancient times, the abundant Chinese treasures in the Topkapi Palace Museum stand as proof of the long-term friendship between China and Turkey, said the Foreign Ministry of Turkey in the preface of the book.
(China Daily January 29, 2002)
